Rokeach The Nature Of Human Values Pdf
Rokeach's Theory of Human Values: An Overview and Critique
Human values are the principles or standards that guide our actions, judgments, and preferences. They reflect what we consider important, desirable, or worthwhile in life. Values are often influenced by our culture, society, and personal experiences. But how can we measure and compare human values across different individuals and groups? And what are the implications of human values for various aspects of social life, such as attitudes, behavior, and well-being?
One of the most influential and comprehensive theories of human values was proposed by the American social psychologist Milton Rokeach in his book The Nature of Human Values, published in 1973. Rokeach's theory is based on two main assumptions: first, that there is a universal and hierarchical structure of human values; and second, that human values play a central role in the organization and functioning of personality and society.
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The Structure of Human Values
Rokeach distinguished between two types of human values: terminal values and instrumental values. Terminal values are the ultimate goals or end-states that people desire to achieve, such as happiness, freedom, or world peace. Instrumental values are the modes of conduct or means that people use to attain their terminal values, such as honesty, responsibility, or courage. Rokeach argued that both types of values are equally important and interrelated, as they form a coherent system of beliefs and preferences.
Rokeach identified 18 terminal values and 18 instrumental values that he considered to be common to all human beings, regardless of their culture or background. He developed a survey instrument called the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), which consists of two lists of values, one for each type. The respondents are asked to rank the values in each list according to their personal importance. The resulting value rankings can be used to describe and compare the value systems of different individuals or groups.
Rokeach also proposed that there is a hierarchical order of human values, based on their generality and abstractness. He suggested that the most general and abstract values are located at the top of the hierarchy, while the more specific and concrete values are located at the bottom. For example, he claimed that the terminal value of "a world at peace" is more general and abstract than the terminal value of "family security", and therefore it occupies a higher position in the value hierarchy. Similarly, he argued that the instrumental value of "ambitious" is more specific and concrete than the instrumental value of "logical", and therefore it occupies a lower position in the value hierarchy.
The Function of Human Values
Rokeach's theory emphasizes the central role of human values in the organization and functioning of personality and society. He argued that human values serve four main functions: cognitive, affective, motivational, and social.
The cognitive function refers to how human values influence our perception, interpretation, and evaluation of reality. Rokeach claimed that human values act as cognitive filters or lenses that shape our worldview and our judgments about ourselves and others.
The affective function refers to how human values influence our emotions, feelings, and moods. Rokeach suggested that human values act as affective triggers or stimuli that elicit positive or negative emotional reactions depending on their congruence or incongruence with our value system.
The motivational function refers to how human values influence our goals, needs, and desires. Rokeach asserted that human values act as motivational drivers or incentives that direct our behavior and actions toward achieving our valued end-states or avoiding their opposites.
The social function refers to how human values influence our relationships, interactions, and communication with others. Rokeach maintained that human values act as social norms or expectations that regulate our social behavior and facilitate our social coordination and cooperation.
A Critique of Rokeach's Theory
Rokeach's theory of human values has been widely applied and tested in various fields of social science, such as psychology, sociology, political science, education, marketing, and management. It has also been influential in developing other theories and models of human values, such as Schwartz's theory, Inglehart's theory, Hofstede's theory, and GLOBE's model. However, Rokeach's theory has also been criticized on several grounds, such as:
The validity and universality of Rokeach's value lists. Some critics have questioned whether Rokeach's 18 terminal values and 18 instrumental values are valid and representative of all human values, or whether they are biased by his own cultural and personal assumptions. Some critics have also challenged whether Rokeach's value lists are applicable and meaningful across different cultures, contexts, and times, or whether they are specific to Western, modern, and individualistic societies.
The reliability and consistency of Rokeach's value rankings. Some critics have pointed out that Rokeach's value rankings are prone to measurement errors and inconsistencies, as they depend on the respondents' subjective interpretations, preferences, and moods. Some critics have also argued that Rokeach's value rankings are not stable and fixed, but rather dynamic and flexible, as they can change over time and across situations depending on the respondents' experiences, circumstances, and goals.
The simplicity and linearity of Rokeach's value hierarchy. Some critics have suggested that Rokeach's value hierarchy is too simple and linear, as it assumes that human values are ordered in a single dimension from the most general and abstract to the most specific and concrete. Some critics have also proposed that human values are organized in a more complex and multidimensional way, as they can form different clusters, dimensions, or types based on their content, structure, or function.
The causality and directionality of Rokeach's value functions. Some critics have disputed that human values have a causal and directional influence on various aspects of social life, such as attitudes, behavior, and well-being. Some critics have also suggested that human values are not only causes but also effects of social phenomena, as they can be influenced by external factors, such as social norms, institutions, or events.
Conclusion
Rokeach's theory of human values is one of the most influential and comprehensive theories in the field of value research. It provides a useful framework for measuring and comparing human values across different individuals and groups. It also highlights the important role of human values in the organization and functioning of personality and society. However, Rokeach's theory is not without limitations and challenges. It faces some validity, reliability, simplicity, and causality issues that need to be addressed and resolved by future research.
If you are interested in learning more about Rokeach's theory of human values, you can download his book in PDF format from [this link]. You can also take the Rokeach Value Survey online from [this link] to find out your own value system.